Marrying for Money

â€Å"I’m a little shocked at t he numbers,† says Pamela Smock, a sociologist at the University of Michigan who has studied marriage and money. â€Å"It’s kind of against the notion of love and soul mates and the main motivations to marry in our culture.† (Frank, 2007). These shocking words that came out from a sociologist only suggests that in modern times, money should still be not the reason for marrying. It is a fact however that money is a big driving force for someone who wants to get married. At the back of their minds, there is the constant reminder of reality like divorce or annulment. However, they should also consider why they got into the relationship in the first place. Relationships are not built based on money. Moreover, one does not dwell into a relationship with the primary concern of money; whereas; it should have been the connection and the love that the partners share. Getting married is not like a hot potato that you can eat and spit out the moment that you discovered that it is too for you to handle. Marriage is a lifetime relationship and commitment; and this very same basis should be built on love, trust and respect. Ultimately, it should not be money because it devoid the vow that they made in front of the authority (may it be religiously or lawfully speaking). No matter how money plays a very important role in our society today, marriage should still be based on the wanting of both people to stay together for the rest of their lives. Additionally, since most of people these days are very agitated into climbing their way into the corporate world. People who want to settle down are the ones that have already made a niche in their fields. This only implies that they have everything they want or could ever want so the concept of money is the least on their priority. In addition, there are such things as pre-nuptial agreements which protect the assets of both parties. And people who sign to such agreements only want to protect their hard-earned money; so it is wrong to say that people want to marry for money. People who want to make money out of marriage are the ones who see it (marriage) as business or a way to get what they want. People who have mindsets like that are very superficial. Their concept of marriage very different from what it really is. Instead, they put a price tag to marriages. However, there are cases wherein people settle down more than once but it is enough to say that they married for money. Take for example Elizabeth Taylor who married five different guys. She is rich on her own that is why she married those guys because she wants to be committed with them for eternity. This only implies that once again, people who want to get married should want to do it because they want to spend the rest of their lives with that special someone. Since most people who want to get married are successful in their chosen field, that is the time that they want someone to spend their life with. Even though the person is really doing well, they cannot be considered truly successful unless they want to achieve real happiness. And marriage, in its purest form, is the only way to achieve that goal. Alongside the desire that you want to share your life with that special someone, the ultimate goal why someone should get married is the happiness that marriage can bring into your life. Marriage is about raising a family and that can give you an ultimate high that not even any achievement can bring. Money is a measure of how successful you are but a happy marriage is also another. Money come and go but family will not. Marrying because of money is a very superficial reason. Marriage is about a commitment of two people to become one which have the same mindset of achieving a happier state in life.   Marriage should be built on trust; respect and love because those really are the basic foundation of a successful future family which ultimately is one of the measurements of how successful you have become. References: Frank, R. (2007). Marrying for Love†¦of money [Electronic Version]. The Wall Street Journal.Retrieved January 16, 2008   from http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119760031991928727.html.                     

Porters Five Forces on Retail Industry Essay

Five forces Model 1) Suppliers power 2) Buyers Bargaining Power 3) New Potential Entrants 4) Threat of Substitutes 5) Industry Competitors STRENGTHS 1) Suppliers power A segment is unattractive if the company’s suppliers are able to raise prices or reduce quantity supplied Ss in apparels section have major brands like, Arrow, Levis, lee, Provogue, Pepe, loues Philip, Zodiac Weakness 2) Customer Buying Power The bargaining power of customer at SS can be a weakness if customer shift to substitutes.There are various other brands which could act as a substitute to SS for eg: Zodiac, Raymonds, Color plus, and Arvind Mills 3) Industry competitors  competitors like Globus, Westside and Lifestyle, Wills Lifestyles, Rpg ,Pantaloon who catered to the same segment of customers, entered the market. 4) New potential entrants Preferred Partner for Foreign Players SS is the preferred partner/retailer for foreign brands entering India. The company has already signed an agreement with UK retailer Mothercare to retail their products. The company has tied-up Estee Lauder’s MAC brand of cosmetics with one strongly performing outlet opened so far. SS has also tied up with Austin Reed for both manufacturing and retailing its brand in India. We expect many more opportunities for similar tie-ups, particularly  as the government has allowed up to 51% FDI in single brand retailing. Shoppers’ Stop has 4 division the Men’s apparels, ladies apparels, kids wear and the Non-apparels. Following is their contribution to the turnover. * Men’s 43% of sales * Women’s 18% of sales * Kids 8% of sales * Non-Apparels 31% of sales SS LOYALITY PROGRAMES SS PIONEERED INDIA’S first loyality programes They have 3 tier loyality programme 1) classic moments for entry level 2) silver edge 3) golden glow, members fall in different cateogory dependimng on theior spends with the company, they also receive reward points which they can redeem later on.

Clinical Reflective Journal

Clinical Reflective Journal The first day I visited psychiatric ward, I felt nervous and excited because of the psychiatric ward which is totally different from general ward. I sensed that all patients who are walking in the corridor and some of them keep murmuring, and those behaviors I seen are seldom appearing in the general ward. However, after I found that they can communicate with others normally and have no aggressive behavior after approaching the patients.I learnt we should establish therapeutic relationship in the communication with patients via using non-judgmental, empathetic, active listening and supportive attitude. But I found difficulties in approaching patients who are introverted due to their unconcerned response. However, I think that we should obtain their confidence through persistent contact with them.Besides, I realized that being a psychiatric nurse, the observational skills is very importance, as the emotional or mental condition of psychiatric patient can be fluctuated between day and night. Therefore, nurses can implement corresponding precautions beforehand. In the private hospital, there are seldom opportunities to perform those skills, but there provide many chances for me to practice the professional skills and of injection and physical restraint.For instance, choosing which type of restrained device should be applied on the patient and related assessment we should made. Moreover, through the guidance of the nurse, I could realize the rationales behind the intervention, weakness in my performance and how to improve it. After caring of psychiatric patient in these two weeks, it helps clear up my misunderstanding of them and I hope that the nursing care of psychiatric patient can be helpful for them to return the society.

Explain the importance of communication in promoting the therapeutic Coursework

Explain the importance of communication in promoting the therapeutic relationship - Coursework Example The behaviours and attitudes of nurses in their caregiving duties and responsibilities highly influence the resultant relationship. It is important to highlight that therapeutic relationship is central to the client’s health and general welfare. I have realized this through my interaction with one of my medical ward patients. A number of factors have constituted my relationship with the patient, but the most important is communication. Communication played a fundamental role in building therapeutic relationship between the patient and me. This in return has enhanced definition and identification of the different users of therapeutic nursing. The role and importance of communication in promoting nurse-patient relationship is described in this paper. A number of factors have influenced my nurse-client relationship prior to my interaction with the patient and communication effectiveness therein. Vulnerability of my client required that trust be an integral component of the therapeutic relationship. Promises to either party were kept to avoid instances of mistrust. Confidentiality of the patient was an important therapeutic variable that I observed so that neither the patient’s nor my boundary was crossed. Our thoughts and opinions prior to this therapeutic relationship were diverse and dynamic. In this regard, mutual respect ensured that these two accounts were accounted for. On the same note, I understood the importance of showing empathy to my client. This way, the client felt cared for and the kind of actions that I took as the patient’s nurse greatly influenced the client’s quality of life, specifically in instances of health complications. Professional intimacy is another thing that built a favourable therapeutic relationship. Bringing the nurse and the client close to one another is integral to a beneficial nursing practice.

Ethics memo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Ethics memo - Essay Example Instant messaging might be considered as a source of enhancing the productivity of Texas technologies. This is because IM allows the employees to perform multiple tasks in an effective manner. However, a major issue linked with this feature is that the security and privacy risks as well as legal issues of the employers can be made an increased subject of exposure. it should be concern that if no strict policy is not put into practice, the Texas technology would result in a lack of control over their employees and inevitably into a disastrous end for the company. A major concern is that the most of the employers are unaware of the pervasiveness of the use of instant messages within the company. This is mainly because the employees at Texas technology are set up IM accounts without the knowledge of the company. In order to put a stop to this issue within the Texas technology it is important that effective policies should be enforced and the employees should be educated on the matter. Certain guidelines for appropriate and suitable personal as well as business use must be enforced and set so as to ensure that the employees are utilizing the feature of IM in a professional manner at Texas technology. By educating the employees regarding the proper IM usage will lead to minimized employers risk. Due to the fact that the IM accounts are an easy target for hacker penetration, the technology should be in place because this is allow the identity of the person they are in communication with to be confirmed. The employers must be made aware of certain legal issues which result from using the instant messaging within the company. Closing: it can thus be summarized that the use of instant messaging certain employees consider as a type of break can result in disastrous effect for the company. This can be done by appropriate IM management. Defense against liability for the behavior of the employees on IM can be accomplished

Current Events and U.S. Diplomacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Current Events and U.S. Diplomacy - Essay Example ion, in deed brought about transformation of the whole world’s politics resulting into a reformulation of economic, political, and military alliances in the entire world. This is evident from the current events and diplomatic relation that has improved between US and Russia since the end of the cold war. The objective of this paper is to explore the current relationship between US and Russia since the end of the cold war. The paper will also discuss the current US diplomatic approach to Lithuania, a former Soviet nation and provide a comparison of the relationships. Finally, the paper will summarize how the US has changed it relates to other countries over the past 20 years. The climax of Cold War gave Russia and United States a new chance to corporate. In fact, Russia took over the permanent seat which previously had been held by Soviet Union at the United Nations Security Council. It was also invited to join G-7, the world’s largest economic powers making it G-8. This has given Russia, and US and opportunity to cooperate in securing loose ties in the former Soviet Union. Trade has also improved between US and Russia. For instance, it is noted that Russia is the biggest producer of hydrocarbons, which US is the biggest consumer. The two nations have also developed a common bilateral corporation in missile defense as a way of ensuring security in the world (American Association for Advancement of Slavic Studies, American Council of Learned Societies and Ohio State University, 2009). However, U.S and Russia still lock horns in certain diplomatic matters. For instance, the United States has tried to push hard for further economic and political reforms in Russia, something that Russia sees as meddling in its internal affairs. The other area that has raised eye brows is the fact that US has invited other former Soviet Union countries to join NATO, an issue that Russia is opposed to. The two nations have also differed on the approach that should be used to

All Immigrants need better support programs for cultural transition in Essay

All Immigrants need better support programs for cultural transition in the United States - Essay Example Significantly, the opportunity for economic improvement has been one of the most important motivations for immigrants in the United States. However, the immigrants have long been experiencing numerous challenges which turn up several issues, including work, education, and marital relationships. Cultural transition has been one of the most significant processes affecting the immigrants in the United States and this process of cross-cultural transition has given rise to several pertinent researches in the area. Immigrants in the United States belong to different countries of origin and dialects, and every group of immigrants has specific economic resources, educational systems, and class structures which keep the group distinct from other groups in the nation. The diversity in the cultural aspects of every immigrant population brings about numerous challenges with regard to cultural transition and the experience of the immigrants of Hmong culture in the nation illustrates these challen ges. The current system of support programs for the cultural transition in United States prove to be deficient in meeting the numerous challenges raised by the cultural practices and beliefs of various immigrant groups. Therefore, a reflective exploration of the experience of the immigrants in the nation, especially the people of Hmong culture, affirms that all immigrants need better support programs for the cultural transition in United States. Cultural transition has been one of the most dominant processes affecting the immigrants in the United States and the various groups of immigrants experience unmerited incidents which affect the process of cultural transition. Most often, difference in the cultural aspects of the individual cultures come to conflict with one another and the culture of the immigrant population usually suffer great loss. The role of social and cultural support programs to deal with these issues of cultural transition is often emphasized in various

Review of Rain Man Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Review of Rain Man - Research Paper Example There are a number of critical perspectives on Rain Man that argue the film positively contributed to society’s understanding of autism and individuals with mental disabilities. In this context of understanding one considers Kim Peek, the inspiration for Dustin Hoffman’s character in the film. It’s understood that following the film Peek found a new degree of confidence and heightened sense of mission (Treffert). In these regards, Hoffman’s depiction of autism is interpreted as empowering and beneficial to social understandings. Another understanding is that as the film demonstrates Raymond’s significant emphasis on routine -- among other peculiarities -- it allows individuals greater insight and understanding for people with autism that exhibit similar character traits (Solomon). This is a perspective that was shared by the filmmakers, including writer Barry Morrow who cried during an award acceptance speech and noted how the film positively change d perspectives on autism (Perring). Although many argue that the film’s depiction of autism is unrealistic, converse perspectives contend that the film did not try to specifically depict one form of autism, but is instead a conglomeration of many disparate elements ("debatewise"). Ultimately, it’s clear the film shifted perspectives on autism in many positive ways. ... Critics have noted that in addition to demonstrating new perspectives on autism, the film also demonstrated Raymond’s emotions and challenges socially relating to his brother (Giordano). It follows then that these emotions, which greatly contributed to the narrative, also allowed the audience to significantly identity with the Dustin Hoffman character. Through this identification the film was able to change perspectives and increase autism awareness, giving it significant social utility, and making it important. While there exists a great degree of positive views on the film’s depiction of autism, others argue that the film changed social perspectives in negative ways. One major perspective in this mode of investigation considers that Raymond -- Dustin Hoffman -- is depicted as better off in the mental asylum. It’s been argued that this depiction is harmful to individuals with autism as it glamorizes the asylum environment, subsequently restricting the freedom of people with autism (Solomon). Other criticisms of the film argue that rather that the film glamorized autism and shifted public perception such that a wave of self-diagnosis took hold that is actually harmful for individuals that are truly autistic ("debatewise"). While such arguments constitute perhaps the most scathing criticisms of the film, other have argued along less stringent lines. One such perspective contends that the film, while accurately portraying a savant, stilted public perception of autism (Lacob). In these regards, critics argue that the vast majority of individuals with autism lack such savant-like abilities, yet the film changed social perspectives to a belief that this is an element that is

2nd Degree Murder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

2nd Degree Murder - Essay Example Some individuals are overly sensitive to some conditions that would be generally harmless to other people. In such a situation, it is easy to deliver justice since accidental cases would be remedied accordingly under the other homicide classifications. In New Jersey, the 62nd State’s General Assembly of 1837 deliberated and passed among other important resolutions that the State would need to be governed, the punishment of death. In the homicide intricacies that the General Assembly had to deal with, as observed above was to distinguish the various classes or degrees of homicide. Three general classifications were found to be definitive of the challenge earlier highlighted of the actual case parameters such as the intent of causing death and general threat to the entire population. Legislation effected later had a considerable reliance on the resolution passed in the General Assembly sitting of 1838. Alternatively, comparisons were made to consolidate the postulates of the American law with the prevalent common law practices. Contained in this discussion is the legislation in New Jersey and the common law position of homicide category of second degree of murder. In light of the elements of the two sets of law and usages, th e changes that have occurred in the circles of legal practice regarding homicide cases of the specified nature are also discussed. According to Lanning and Vroom (2005), general statutes of the State of New Jersey provide that there shall be two degrees of murder distinguished by the intention of the perpetrator at the time of occurrence of the death. The authors provide the Supplement 271 among other General Statutes of the State of New Jersey which provides for the first degree of murder to constitute such death caused by actions of an individual who commits the crime willfully, deliberately and in a premeditated account. The Supplement 271 continues to state that the other forms of murder fall under the second degree of

Pardoning Death Row Prisoners Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pardoning Death Row Prisoners - Essay Example She corroborated her claim by not only leading an exemplary life during her time in the prison, but also managed to garner much social and institutional support in favor of her pardon. The second example is of a gangster Stanley Williams who murdered 4 people in cold blood and received a death sentence. In the following years, Stanley not only became a peace activist and a prolific writer, but also claimed that the prison life had made him a good person. Again, Stanley managed to attract the sympathy and support of many prominent citizens and organizations. Yet, both Karla and Stanley were executed, irrespective of their proclaimed rehabilitation on death row. Law serves many purposes in the modern societies. In case of a heinous crime like homicide, the purpose of the law is not only to give justice to the murdered individuals and their family members and associates, but also to set an example before the society, so that people may desist from committing such crimes in the future (Bedau 52). If the state starts pardoning or commuting the death sentences of the criminals who claim to have changed or have become peaceful individuals owing to religious or other benign reasons, this will provide a loophole to most of the death row prisoners to claim pardon by citing similar excuses. ... Such instances will not only set a dangerous precedent, but will amount to reducing the law to a joke. The transformation or improvement of a murderer does not relieve one of the debt one owes to the victims in particular and the society in general. Second Possible Position It is a known fact that in most of the modern societies, their always exists a gap of a couple of years, before the passing of a death sentence to a person guilty of murder and the actual execution. The primary purpose of the law is to make society a safe place to live. Hence, it is perfectly justified to protect society from a dangerous murderer or a habitual criminal by sentencing one to death. Considering the prolonged gaps between the passing of the sentence and the execution, it is quiet possible that a murderer may become a better person owing to introspection and the salubrious influences that one may come across in the prison (Tabak 181). If this fact is further corroborated by a prisoner's good behavior on death row over a prolonged period and is recognized and supported by prominent citizens and organizations, the state can certainly pardon or commute the death sentence of such a prisoner. Once a prisoner has credibly become a peaceful citizen and has managed to attract th e support of the society, executing one simply serves no purpose, but amounts to unnecessary and legal violence (Baird 46). More Agreeable Position In the context of the case presentation under consideration, the first position stands to be more valid and agreeable. The first position takes a more broad based and pragmatic view of the institution of law. The perspective adopted by the first position

Course review of the semester Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Course review of the semester - Coursework Example The most common of all civilizations recorded in the Indian history is the Indus Civilization. When analyzing the history of the ancient civilization, (Srinivas, 2004, p.58) argues that the Indus Civilization began in the Bronze Age stage of human evolution. Among the three prehistoric culture, the Indus Civilization was the most widespread covering an approximate area of over a million square kilometers. The other civilizations were Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Another surprising fact about the Indus Civilization is that its inhabitants developed techniques such as metallurgy (melting metals such as copper and tin) and handcraft (carving and basketry). Furthermore, the civilization had cities with excellent urban plans such as drainage system, water supply system and huge residential buildings. The Vedic era was characterized by the Aryan culture that was associated with Vedas. In his work, (Srinivas, 2004) describes the Vedas as texts that are sacred to Hindu. In addition, the Vedic civilization, which lasted up to 500BC, forms the foundation of Hinduism religion and many other Indian cultural aspects. The era of the Vedic civilization marked the genesis of the present day India. Most of the current day states of the art technology can trace their roots on the Indus and Vedic civilizations. In India, religion forms a foundation in major areas of life. According to (Srinivas, 2004, p.60), about 85 percent of Indians adhere to Hindu religion while the rest are mainly Muslims. Just like Indian gods and goddesses. Hinduism has many dimensions depending on location and caste. Indians follow dharma as their moral codes while Vedas are considered as being the sacred texts. Spiritually, (Srinivas, 2004, p.63), declares that Indians believe in reincarnation. In the belief, life is a continuous process of death and rebirth. According to the belief, when someone dies, a rebirth takes place

Degree Appraisals Essay Example for Free

Degree Appraisals Essay General Electrics’ Durham, North Carolina assembly employees have a unique work environment in which they build the GE90 jet engine for Boeing. The 9 engine build teams consist of approximately 18 employees who own the entire process of assembling some 10,000 parts perfectly to create one complete engine assembly. The teams are self managed, doing everything from ordering parts and tools to scheduling vacation and overtime. The success of the teams comes from their founding method of agreement by consensus decisions making. In fact, the consensus decision making process has become a way of life to many of these employees, and management decisions are only needed about 12 decisions per year. Although employees don’t always have unanimous agreement, there is seldom any blame when things go wrong because of their strong trusting relationships. This type of consensus management has instilled a high level of trust relationships among the team members and their superiors. These self-managed teams operate in a culture of continuous feedback and rely on management to make them aware of problems and report solutions. Beyond the day-to-day decisions making, any major issues, such as safety and cost, are decided by a task force. The plant manager informs and educates the task force and employees about the problem and why it is important, and the task force decides how to address problems. The task force takes the responsibility to find solutions and decisions are reporting back to plant management on what the future solutions will be. These solutions and decisions made by the task force are communicate to the plant manager and then on to the higher-ups for their buy in. The Plant Manager Paula Sims, who has been on the job 4 years, has proposed to HR that she would like initiate a 360-degree review to supplement existing performance  measures. Ms. Sims’ proposal is met with some concerns from HR, it is assumed that HR has concerns that implementing a new system without a consensus decision will breakdown trust with the employees and limit the willing participation if the 360 review were to be implemented. Root Problem The root problem with Ms. Sims proposal is that the implementation goes directly against the culture of consensus agreement on making decisions for the teams and the plant. Since this would be considered a major change, it should be brought to a task force for review and solution, or at minimum be brought to the attention of all employees. In the past, Ms. Sims has experienced issues of missed trust with the assembly teams and this direct approach with HR for the implementation a new performance measure stands to have an equally negative effect. Alternative Ideas In order to address the root problem, HR would like to propose some alternative ideas to Ms. Sims proposals that could include awareness of GE corporate use general of 360 degree performance measures in other locations. Investigations on the benefits from other GE plants should be presented to employees to gain a better understanding and buy-in of the proposal. Knowing the culture of feedback that exist within the plant, Ms. Sims could call for a task force to investigate the benefits of 360 degree feedback and make a direction decision on the use of 360 degree appraisals. In consideration of alternative ideas, Ms. Sims should consider approaching the employees and HR by providing factual information about the value of peer reviews. For example, â€Å"research shows that appraisals by peers are useful predictors of training success and future performance† (Jackson, S.E., Schuler, R.S., Werner, S., 2012). Additionally, since the GE employees are team-based units, it is also been shown that anonymous peer appraisals in teams increase interpersonal effectiveness, group cohesion, communication openness and group satisfaction (Jackson, et al, 2012). Furthermore, she could gain more leverage by stating the success of the peer reviews in other GE facilities, as real life inter-company example. The last alternative is simply do nothing and keep the current system as it is without a 360 degree review. Considering Ms. Sims determination to implement the new appraisal, she should consider a trial basis with a one the nine teams as a test bed  from training implementation and use of the 360 review. As multiple alternatives have been presented, a closer evaluation of each proposal is the necessary to derive the what is believed to the best alternative. 1. Awareness and Buy-in – this alternative looks at bringing awareness to the 360-degree appraisal as a supplemental appraisal by providi ng factual information on the benefits of the program at GE’s jet engine plant. Awareness makes buy-in easier when at the end of the day, you allow the teams to make a decision by consensus on the implementation of the new peer review. 2. Empowered team decision – this alternative simply turns the information and decision back to the team and task force. This alternative is the most cohesive alternative and aligns well with the culture of the company. 3. Trial basis this alternative assume Ms. Sims pushes her idea forward and assumes she will be met with some resistance during the implementation phase. In this case focusing on a smaller beta test group proves to be easier to manage and create buy-in with when the results show positive improvements. 4. Status Quo – this alternative assumes that nothing is done, no implementation is agreed upon and the current performance measures stay in place without a 360-degree appraisal. Choose an Alternative Implementation In an effort to maintain the strong trusting relationships that exist at the various levels of team members and management, it is recommended that the alternative proposal of â€Å"awareness and buy-in† be selected and acted upon. Implementation of this plan will begin with Ms. Sims collecting and presenting data from both internal GE resources and external resources to show the benefits of supplementing the current performance appraisals with a 360-degree peer review. Next Ms. Sims must work directly with HR to plan an appropriate training period and plan in conjunction with the roll out of information to the 9 assembly teams. This portion of the preparation should include the consideration of one group to be the test bed or beta group for evaluation purposes. Once the information is presented to all the employees, an internal task force should be commissioned to evaluate the information provided by Ms. Sims for the purpose my allowing the continuance of the consensus culture . There are a multitude of options this management team has in considering the addition of the new peer review. However,  allowing the teams and/or special task force to make the decision on their own and continue to feel the sense of ownership is paramount in the implementation phase of the proposal. Therefore it is recommended that after the beta group is selected and effectively trained, HR and Ms. Sims must monitor the effectiveness of the raters over an initially shorter period of time for the appraisals to take place. This step will be for the purpose of training and evaluation. Based the results from the six months data collection and feedback from the Beta group, Ms. Sims and HR will determine if further training is needed, if the employees are seeing value in the productivity and performance improvements as a result of using the 360 degree appraisals. If the results are positive the information will be shared with the task force and all employees for further implementation and training, beyond the beta group. Reference Jackson, S.E., Schuler, R.S., Werner, S (2012). Managing Human Resources (11th edition)., Mason, OH: South-Western

Situations and styles of leadership | Free essay | Management essays

Situations and styles of leadership | Free essay | Management essays Introduction Leadership has been the topic of discussion and research in the Organizational Behavior literature. A great collection of different theoretical framework has been developed to make out elements of leadership. Incessant self assessment, learning, guidance, experience and never ending process of self-study develops good leaders in a society. Many companies are facing high turnover, absenteeism, low morale among employees and many other such issues related to the job environment. For all these problems companies need proper effective leadership. The purpose of this paper is to have an in-depth insight on the major research findings of an effective leadership styles and situations and their role in organizational performance by reviewing the research literature. In this review paper organizational performance is being judged by the motivational level of the employees and job satisfaction factor. So this review paper gives a clear insight concerning (the theories of leadership) factors that boost leadership among employees which is then linked with organizational performance. This review paper will help managers to look at the major concerns which lead to great leadership and how to handle challenges and unexpected situations occurring in an organization. Effective leadership can be expressed where leaders influence group members, followers or subordinates in a way that this will help them to achieve common goals. Leadership and its Meaning: As this world is changing so is the definition of leadership. Over the years leadership has been described according to the circumstances. Effective leader is the one who is able to match his level of skills to the maturity of the subordinates. The word has been defined in so many terms that giving a single definition will not be justified. In order to understand the true meaning of leadership one has to study the topic itself thoroughly. Todays world is so complex and fast changing that we cannot just stick to one definition of the leadership. As the competition from the other firms comes in the organization so the ideas, so they broaden the meaning of what leadership is. As described by Thomas B. Allen (1988); the word leadership refers to a process of social influence, in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task. A more apt and inclusive definition with regard to followers comes from Robert J. House (1996) who states that lea dership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen. Another definition comes from literature which states that effective leadership is the ability to successfully integrate and maximize available resources within the internal and external environment for the attainment of organizational or societal goals. Kirkpatrick Locke (1991) suggested through their study that effective leader is an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be recognized as meeting the expectations of an organization or society. The analysis suggests that effective leadership can have positive impact on overall performance. Effective leadership can be described as giving a vision to the team-members and developing the path for the followers to achieve the maximum output. In order to gain high level of organizational performance leaders have to adopt new, innovative and challenging techniques to guide, motivate and manage the subordinates. Leadership is all about performance of the subordinates, groups, and organizations; good leadership promotes valuable group performance which in turn leads to high growth and expansion of a firm. A leaders background, life experiences, and daily communications define his or her leadership style. The difference between a good leader and a great leader is his or her ability to adapt to change. In an organization usually leaders and subordinates work together to understand the behavior of each other and try to manage their behavior to produce more beneficial results, Davis RV Tim Luthans. F (1979). According to Avery, G.C. Jing F.F. (2008) due to the complexity of leadership it is broken into five different perspectives: competency, behavioral, contingency, transformational, and implicit. Leadership is a method by which an individual persuades other people in a group to achieve an objective and leads the organization in a way that makes the team members interconnected and coherent. Bass (1989 1990) explains three types of theories of leadership. According to him there is a trait theory which states that in some people have in born traits which lead them to become a leader. Se cond theory is great event theory which is related to the crisis or important event. It states that sometimes some major events or crisis leave their marks on an individual personality which may bring out leadership qualities in an ordinary person, making him an extraordinary leader. Third is Transformational leadership theory which is most widely accepted theory of recent years. In it people by choice prefer the path of becoming leaders through learning and proper education. Leadership has certain set attributes like values, ethics, belief, knowledge and skill etc., which if followed properly can make an individual a good leader. Robert D. Rossel (1970) in his paper argued that there are two kinds of orientations, instrumental and expressive, attached to the effective leadership in an organization. According to him, leadership orientation depends on the nature of organization. Different organizations require different kind of leadership orientation among supervisors and managers. He further stated, if we take an example of organizations like mental hospitals, prisons etc where the environment is more segregated and isolated, the most successful leadership will be informal and expressive. Whereas formal and instrumental leadership will be required in organizations dealing in production and service side. Author explained the instrumental orientation to leadership as one which is more task oriented, the main focus of such type of leadership in an organization is to motivate team members, to maintain product quality. While, expressive orientation to leadership is all about getting along with the group members and the conduct of perverseness, and inattentiveness in leadership may interfere with the goals of organization. Author stated that the orientation to leadership also vary depending upon the labor commitment required for any particular organization. According to the findings of this paper, this can be affirmed that organizations where there is a high labor commitment demonstrate a very definite instrumental orientation in top management (F-Ratio 2.39, Mean 1.25) and an expressive orientation in lower supervisors (Mean -0.17). In terms of superior performance, effective leadership leads to people who find fulfillment in their jobs, work with enthusiasm passion, and perform quality work, with innovation and creativity. Effective leaders need to be able to endorse ideas and concepts as well as promote ideologies. Another quality seen in efficient leaders is how they can shift their groups attention towards the goals and objectives at hand by providing strategies regarding how to achieve the desired goals. They not only provide the physical resources required for the job such as tools and administrative or technical assistance, but also the psychological ones such as motivation, education and understanding. The most efficient leaders can also adapt to different environments according to the need of the hour and provide their workers with all the support and attention they require in order to successfully fulfill the task at hand. Hogan Kaiser (2005) defined leadership as a process of team building in which every member work well according to the set rules defined by the leader to outperform the competition. They further elaborated regarding the conventional definition of leadership over time, which defined leadership as the person who has the ability to influence others can be a leader but according to the author group performance should be the measure of leadership. They stated that in order to judge and assess the leadership one should look at the team performance. Three implications of this view should be noted. First, leadership involves influencing individuals willingly to contribute to the good of the group. Second, leadership requires coordinating and the guiding group (by adopting the most appropriate way) to achieve its goals. Finally, goals vary by organization and their life cycles. Leadership is the most essential item required for creating a team out of a group of individuals. One of the most im perative qualities of a good leader is that they can make individuals on team a single unit leading to synergy. Effective leaders can convince their team members to concentrate on their role within the team rather than their individual goals. An indicator regarding the success of a leader is the success of his or her followers. The key difference in explaining the long term performances of the firms is mostly attributed to an exceptional leadership. Superior performance is achieved when an organization is generating the maximum level of profitability possible with the help of three key determinants; efficiency, adaptations, and human resources. A business environment is more likely to succeed when it has people with high levels of skills, commitment and mutual trusts. Many times leaders performance is constrained with respect to the nature and size of an organization. Each leader performs within the set limits of an organization, which actually hinder the real outcomes. In other wor ds, the structure and size of a firm basically depicts the extent of leaders performance. Organizational Performance In order to understand the meaning of organizational performance first we have to look at the definition of organization. Aldrich (1979) in his book organizations and environment explained organization in three ways a) goal oriented; b) boundary maintaining, and c) activity system. By goal directed he means that the end objective of all organizations is to earn profit and to maximize the wealth of shares holders. Members of an organization behaves as if they have some defined goal, all of them work to achieve some specified purpose. This means members of an organization are task-oriented do not merely work for social interaction. Goal-directed behavior and deliberate design of activity systems distinguish organizations from other groups, such as families, friendship circles, audiences and mass publics. By boundary maintain he meant that organizations have defined clearly among the members of an organizations and non-members. And all members of an organization work collectively under the supervision of some authority to obtain defined goals. Activity system can be described as a system in an organization where all members are assigned some activities to achieve some predefined goals within boundary of an organization. The major component of effective organization is having a talent management team, which will be headed by a leader. Organizational performance need to be studied in relation to the status of employee satisfaction to assess how good the firm is doing in the market. In order to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of an Organization one has to look at the performance of the workers. Employees perform best when they are highly motivated resulting in increased number of customers and high growth rate. Thomas. B. Alan. (1988) entailed through his study that organizational performance is highly variable term. He further argued that organizational performance depends on various kinds of factors such as leaders styles and behavior, leader-subordinate relation, firm size etc. which definitely has a great impact on the performance of a firm. One of the main reason behind this is that assets like leadership behaviors, organization culture, skill and know-how, and motivation are seen as the most important factors of strength in those firms which involve group, procedures and organizational performance, Avery, G.C. Jing F.F. (2008). Therefore, leaders and their leadership style influence both their subordinates and organizational outcomes. Organizational performance increases if the employees are highly motivated and satisfied with team leader and their work. As per Ohio State University research successful leadership has two behavioral dimensions which play very important role, a. Consideration: in this kind of behavior leader of a group is concerned about the team members. This aspect of leadership is linked with leadership traits of kindliness, discussion with subordinates, appreciation and respect of team members and supportiveness, b. Initiating Structure: this type of leaders behavior is more towards work done. They are more concerned about work and task. Leaders who fall into this category of style are much planned, coordinated, and clear about their goals, criticize poor work, and always pressurize subordinates to work more effectively. Leadership Styles Effective leadership involves the study of different styles of leaders. The literature suggests that some types of leadership styles are preferred over others. This is especially true under different working conditions as well as the subordinates relation with the leader. Rotemberg. J.J Saloner. G. (1993) concluded through their study that leadership style of a firm is selected by the stakeholders to maximize the ex ante profits. According to their study the leader of the group (team Manager) exercises his power in different ways. They considered leadership styles as; a) Locus of control, internal locus of control in which leader feels whatever happens is because of their own strategies and actions, external locus of control in which they feel environment is responsible for whatever happening in their lives, b) Flexibility, few leaders are flexible and they are open to new ideas and thoughts, whereas some leaders have been identified as rigid. CEOs whose style is more rigid tend to lead firms with fewer innovations and do not delegate easily. Leadership style includes not only motivating and providing direction to the people but also implementing the plans. The needs of the employees play an important role in identifying the approach that a leader uses. An often overlooked quality within leaders is helpfulness. They not only need to encourage teamwork but also provide all sorts of support required to their team members. Studies also suggest that there is evidence that states considerate leaders tend to perform better. Leaders need to use multiple approaches while dealing with their subordinates, some of which include relationship development, training and professionalism of subordinates and time allotments. The three well known styles of leaderships are authoritative, participative and delegating, James D. Boulgarides William A. Cohen (2001). Authoritative: This is a style where the leader is in complete control and orders his subordinates regarding their duties without any consultation from them. This style is not very popular with the subordinates and is only effective if the leader has complete knowledge regarding the subject as well as definitive plans regarding how to execute the project. This style is looked down upon and should only be practiced on the rarest of occasions when time is of the essence. It can be used within certain limits if the subordinate is unfamiliar with the job in order to guide them more effectively. Participative: This is the suggested style of leadership within organizations as it makes sure all the involved parties are taken into account while making decisions. It is used when the leader knows about the final goal but wants to discuss the different options regarding procedures required to complete the goals. In this style the subordinates are informed of the goal by the leader and then an interactive discussion is carried out regarding how to achieve the stated goals. Even though all the subordinates are taken into consideration the leader remains in firm control and is the one who determines the plan of action based on the input provided by the subordinates. This style is mutually beneficial and ensures an environment of teamwork which leads to better performance. Delegating: This is when the leader leaves the decision up to the subordinates. This style is usually used when the employees are more informed regarding the subject than the leader and can analyze the situation better and come up with a better plan regarding what needs to be done. Even though the employee is the one taking the decision, it is still the leaders responsibility. The leader still has to delegate tasks in this style. This style is only suggested when the leader has complete confidence in the ability of his subordinates. Davis. R.V.Tim Luthans. F. (1979) envisioned a model consisting of four basic styles called the decision style model. These styles included Directive, Analytic, Behavioral and Conceptual. Directive: This is an autocratic style which is usually adopted when the leader has a need for power. Such kind of leadership style is more effective in situations where subordinates are ill informed or ill equipped for the task at hand. The model focuses on technical decisions and leaders do not consult and take very less advice from the subordinates. The leaders who practice this style are very performance oriented and therefore they operate with a lot of control. They tend to be aggressive and tend to achieve their desired results by hook or by crook. They also tend to have very dominating personalities. Analytic: This type of leader is a lot less authoritative than the directive type of leader and has more tolerance for ambiguity. They also tend to have more approachable attitude as they tend to want input from everywhere before reaching a decision. This style is best suited for the ability to cope with new situations which is why this system is an efficient problem solver. These leaders are usually not too hasty with decisions and take their time in evaluating all their options. Conceptual: This style uses data from various sources and analyzes all possible solutions with great details and looks at each and every alternative. It is quite similar to the behavioral style. The relationship between the leader and his team is one of openness and trust. The leaders are usually idealists therefore ethics and values play a key role. They have a long range focus and have high amounts of organizational commitment. They are usually understanding towards their team and adapt well according to different situations. They tend to like to have less control and tend to encourage a team effort and participation on an equal level. They want to see their team develop as a whole and even though they are achievement oriented they value independence as well. Behavioral: The managers who practice this style of leadership are highly concerned with their workers well being and tend to be a great source of support for their employees as they are highly people oriented. They are very open and easy to communicate with. They are also willing to compromise more and can be persuaded and welcome suggestions. All these qualities show that they tend to have lost control. They aim to be accepted and liked and avoid conflicts. They have a low data input. Hunt. J. G. (1971) discovered through his study that an ineffective leader leads to conflicts on multiple levels as well as a highly uninviting work environment both of which lead to organizational inefficiency. The overall environment becomes negative as employees do not take their managers seriously and through study it can be concluded that leadership requirement at different levels of management may vary markedly. It seems likely that when a leader has enough knowledge of two different types of management level then they perform better as compare to managers who have knowledge of only one management level, but definite kind of knowledge is likely to be dependent on various kinds of situations. Many managers use penalties which instill fear of mistakes within the employees. Authoritative leaders may cut days off, yell and demean their workers and abuse their power. They feel that intimidating their employees and increasing their authority will lead to more productivity however wha t happens is that there is more tension, employees become scared, morale falls and the organizational performance is affected. The autocratic style of leadership is greatly discouraged within organizations and should only be used when dealing with new employees who are unfamiliar with the organizational culture as it does not work well with the more experienced employees as suggested by research. A separate style of leadership is a laissez-fare style in which the leader does not manage his employees and only guides them. This happens only when the employees themselves select an informal leader for guidance. All these different styles of leaderships are suited to different environments. A behavioral style might be very successful in a certain environment yet might fail abysmally in another so a good leader adapts to these different environments with different styles. Therefore not all leaders are successful in all environments which is why certain leaders are chosen for certain situations. Spillane. J.P., Halverson R Diamond. B. J (2004) proposed this approach is not a viable option in the current day scenario as there is constant change. He suggests that leaders should now be chosen for their ability to deal with a wide range of tactics and that leaders should become more efficient in applying tactics rather than approaching different styles of leaderships. He also states that extremes of flexibility and rigidity are the least efficient styles. According to Fielder (1967) almost anything is easier to change than a managers style which is why a leader should not pretend to be something they are not. Leaders who act as facilitators are most liked among the followers and are most easy to understand. Flexible leaders also tend to adapt more easily to new situations compared to rigid ones. Efficient Flexibility doesnt mean a change in personality, all it is, is a change in tactics. Situational Leadership The objective of this review paper is to explain effective leadership in different situations and its role in a firm. It is essential to elaborate few theories which have substantial importance in Organizational Behavior literature. Situational leaders are those who can coordinate, guide, handle and direct his team members in all kinds of known and unknown situations (situational factors). There are few aspects which lead to situational decisions such as motivation and capability of followers. This, in turn, is affected by factors within the particular situation. Another factor which may affect leaders behavior is the relationship shared between followers and leader. According to the situational theory purposed by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) leader should be able to motivate his followers in order to make them perform their task efficiently and effectively. Leaders should work in a way that they will motivate their followers and increase their development level. On the basis of these lines they have come up with four leadership styles that are consistent with the four development levels for followers. 1) S1: Telling / directing: when in a team followers are unable to understand the task and afraid to perform their duties then the leader will guide and coordinate them properly. Leaders in this situation identify the real problem occurring to the follower and try to solve it. Leaders uphold the position of boss so that all assignments will be done properly within time. 2) S2: Selling / coaching: when the follower is able to understand his task to some extent and he looks confident in this, then telling him will be equal to discouraging them. So in this type of situations leaders have to guide his team members very carefully and instead of telling, the leaders have to sell the techniques of working, explaining and clarifying decisions. First two styles are more leader oriented. 3) S3: Participating / supporting: when followers can perform and they dont show the results then leaders have to be very patient and deal this situation with expertise. Leaders should find out different ways to motivate the followers and if reasons of not showing performance would have been found then leaders should tackle them properly. 4) S4: Delegating / Observing: in this type of situations followers know their jobs and they dont need any guidance but still its important for leaders to keep a check on the performance of the followers in order to ensure that everything moving according to the set plan. Bruno Leo F.C. (2006) explained the profile of leadership styles of Brazilian supervisors or CEO based on the situational leadership styles purposed by Hersey et al (1969). In his paper he elucidated that results showed that most of the executives are seen accepting the styles S2 (48.29% frequency distribution) and S3 (28.60% frequency distribution). So this shows that they have capabilities of working with followers of average level of willingness. Though they sometimes face problems regarding discipline and work with groups. Management theorists of the past tried to discover the best form of leadership for all situations however modern day researchers have realized that different environments lead to a significant impact on the effectiveness of a leader. Fielder (1967) carried out extensive research regarding how different situations affect leadership effectiveness. According to his research the relations motivated manager is most effective where the leader doesnt need much power whereas the task related manager performs well when his relations with his employees are good and when he has a strong control. In an unfavorable condition neither of the leaders would be effective so an alternative solution would be to replace the leader. In order to provide a solution for the style-situation issue Vroom Jago, Arthur. G (2007) found an approach that dealt with the interaction between the leader and his subordinates. The model suggested that situation played a great role for a style to be effective. It also concluded that subordinate motivation and technical effectiveness play a key role in sharing of leader power and if neither of these are important than the leader himself takes the decision. If motivation is low but technical difficulties are still important then the leader tries to gain more information and if technical difficulty is not important and motivation is high then delegation might be the answer. Lastly if the problem level is high and a need for acceptance is present then the decision is shared within the group. This shows that there is a consistency in the behavior in different situations. Sometimes interpersonal behavioral patterns are also transferred when work performances change in order to meet ne w requirements. Different task demands also lead to changes in leaders. Another point of view regarding styles of leaders is one of Fiedler (1974). Fenwick F Jing, Avery, G.C. (2008) found out trough their research that it is very difficult to define the relationship of leadership-performance. After doing concentrated research they accepted the four leadership paradigms as a tool of measuring the concept of leadership, (visionary, transactional, classical and organic paradigms).Avery (2001) identified 13 indices to measure these above mentioned leadership paradigms out of which 9 were used in the research of Fenwick F Jing, Avery, G.C. (2008). Many researchers who are constantly working on defining the leadership concept in groups have been able to link it with functional approach. In functional approach the main target of a leader is to get the job done and increase the level of performance. Thus, in such kind of approach leader ensures that every task should be completed in time. All team members actively participate in order to accomplish the task. The main objective of a leader behind this approach is to complete the functio ns, while leadership can be categorized as a way of problem solving achieved by common responses to social problems. In order to understand the functions four broad types of functions have been identified: 1) well informed and structured team, 2) proper use of information in hand to solve the problems, 3) managing and control human resources, and 4) proper usage of resources. Burke, C. S., Stagl, K. C., Klein, C., Goodwin, G. F., Salas, E., Halpin, S. M. (2006). Several studies show that the leader faces few obstacles regarding the organizational life cycle. There are five different stages of an organization and the changes which include, changes in management focus, organizational structure, top management style, control system and reward emphasis. Things that added to these changes and made the decision process harder included the size and age of the organization, its stage of evolution and the growth rate of the industry. Substantial numbers of management scholars have debated the effectiveness of leadership styles, behaviors and situations when selecting measurements of performance there is a correlation between financial performance and customer satisfaction. Several reasons indicate that there should be a relationship between leadership and performance. The first reason relates to practice. Todays intensive, dynamic markets feature innovation-based competition, price/performance rivalry, decreasing returns, and the creative destruction of existing competencies therefore effective leadership behaviors can facilitate the improvement of performance when organizations face these new challenges. Lumijà ¤rvi.I. (2007). Understanding the effects of leadership on performance is also important because leadership is viewed as one of the key driving forces for improving a firms performance. The Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness In this section contingency theory has been described which was actually originated by Fiedler. Fiedler. E. Fred (1972). Contingency theory helps executives and leaders to motivate and guide their followers in order to get better results for an organization. This theory is all about how leaders lead their groups in different situations, which predict followers capabilities and behaviors. There are few similarities between Contingency theory and situational theory. Former deals with the ability of leaders and see how they handle their followers to achieve high organizational performance in all kinds of situations. Also there is an important difference between the two theories. Situational Theory is more focused towards the behavior of the leader, depending upon the situations (often about follower behavior); whereas contingency theory talks about the bigger picture and it embraces group aspects about leader competence and other variables within the situation. This model was purposed by Fiedler in (1964) and (1974). According to this model they have explained two categories of motivational oriented leaders i.e. one is the task-motivated leaders and second category is relationship- motivated leaders. Author described that whenever some unexpected situation occurs in an organization both types of leaders react or respond to the situation differently. Many researchers have worked on this model and proves that leaders with task-motivated orientation mostly perform effectively in all types of situations, whereas leaders which fall into the second category (relationship-motivated) perform best in situations in which their control and influence is moderate. They further elaborated that leaders performance is l Management Leadership Styles: Tesco Management Leadership Styles: Tesco Executive Summary The retail organisation whose management and leadership styles will be investigated is ‘Tesco PLC. One will be analysing the management and leadership styles that are currently used by Tesco and whether these styles are effective, and also recommend if they could change or adopt any new styles which may be of more benefit to them. 1.0 Introduction Tesco PLC is one of the leading retailers in the United Kingdom and one of the largest food retailers in the world. Tesco has diversified by also selling non-food goods, such as electrical and also clothes in their stores. The initial size of the company indicates that the types of management and leadership styles and the way these are handled are crucial for the success of this firm. Similar to most companies, the management and leadership styles adopted within Tesco are likely to have continuously been adapted in correlation with the growth of the company over the years. Although the current management style has evidently been successful here in the UK, it is highly likely that they would not be able to use this same management style in certain countries overseas, namely Japan and China. The primary reason for this is due to the different cultures and values which have been adopted by these respective countries and this is something that will be taken into account. The management and leadership styles analysed below, are approaches which are likely to be implemented by Tesco. 2.0 Management Leadership definition Management is the organisational process that includes strategic planning, setting; objectives, managing recourses, deploying the human and financial assets needed to achieve objectives, and measuring results (Stuhlman Management Consultants, 2007). Boddy (2005) defines management as ‘the activity of getting things done with the aid of people and other recourses. Mintzberg (1973) makes this definition even simpler by stating, ‘if you ask a manager what he does, he they will most likely tell you that he plans, organizes, coordinates and controls Hannagan (1995) states that ‘Leadership can be seen as performing the influencing function of management, largely involved with establishing goals and motivating people to help achieve them. Leaders decide ‘where we are going rather than describe ‘how we are going to get there. House (2004) states that leadership is ‘the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members. For a manager to make his/her subordinates work effectively, the have to be motivated. Motivation is a key factor that must be held by a manager or a leader because; a de-motivated workforce leads to lower productivity. A manager keeping his workforce motivated is ensuring that his/her subordinates are working at a high level of productivity. Masterson and Pickton (2004) define motivation as ‘†¦the complex relationship between needs, drives and goals†¦ It is therefore ideal for a manager or leader to identify the needs, find out what drives workers, and subsequently, set them goals. 3.0 McGregors Theory X and Y One of the most influential theories on the understanding of leadership is created by the work of Douglas McGregor (1960) in developing theories X and Y. He believed that managers took two different views of their subordinates and conducted practices that would best suit their assumption of the workers they were in charge of. Theory X managers, take the thinking that people dislike work, and only work as it is a necessity for survival. They perceive workers to be lazy people who want to avoid responsibility, who lack ambition and would prefer to be directed, rather then use initiative to take roles of responsibility. Mainly, these managers believe people want security from there jobs, therefore the managers take a very directive approach to leadership and are very strict and controlling with their subordinates. Organisational goals already established and workers are pushed in a certain direction so that these goals can be fully achieved. On the other hand, Theory Y managers take an immensely different view to the theory X style of management. Theory Y managers believe that people see work as a daily occurrence and actually accept and strive to have some responsibility. They believe that if workers are in the right conditions, they will work hard their own will, helping the organization achieve the set out goals, and in return, being rewarded for this hard work and effort. In this scenario, managers will work together with subordinates, deciding work objectives and by developing strategies designed to achieve these goals. They will encourage team working and also delegate decision making when and were possible. In relation to Tesco, the management are likely to take a theory X approach in running their organisation. Due to the enormity of the number of subordinates a manager is likely to be in supervision of, it would be almost impossible to use the latter approach. Furthermore, the tasks needed to be carried out by workers do not require many skills, for example shop floor duties such as shelf stacking, checkouts and sales assistants carry out basic duties. As a result, these workers would need constant supervision and direction to ensure consistency and continuity in order to achieve the firms goals. Therefore, for Tesco, a theory X approach to management in their stores is the most effective management style. 4.0 Ohio State University Model The initiating structure is the pattern of leadership behaviour that emphasises the performance of the work in hand and the achievement of production or service goals. Boddy (2005) states ‘This behaviour involves the managers concern for directing subordinates in order to achieve production targets. It is a task-oriented approach, where managers tend to be highly directive and emphasise completing a task according to plan. This behavioural approach to leadership relates to Tesco in that, managers at Tesco are more concerned with getting the job done and reaching store targets rather then taking a ‘consideration dimension which involves more the concern for people. Boddy (2005) states that typical behaviours included: Allocating subordinates to specific tasks Establishing standards of job performance Informing subordinates of the requirements of the job Scheduling work to be done by subordinates Encouraging the use of uniform procedures 5.0 Blake and Moutons Management Grid ‘The management grid identifies a range of management behaviours based on various ways that task-oriented and employee-orientated styles can interact with each other. When looking at Appendix 1, in relation to Tesco, the management would identify themselves mostly to an Authoritarian management style (also known as produce or perish style), which has a high concern for production and efficiency and concentrates less on people. They take a task oriented approach which takes in hand the needs of the task in hand rather then the wants of subordinates. This is again, similar again to the Theory X approach stated approach, and is effective to Tesco where there is a larger amount of lower-skilled employees. 6.0 Herzberg Two Factor Theory Herzberg was interested in discovering how need satisfaction occurs in a workplace and the impact of motivation on behaviours and attitudes. Fincham and Rhodes (2005) stated that Herzbergs two factor theory involved, firstly the ‘motivators and secondly the ‘hygiene factors. Hygiene factors involved supervision, salary, work environment, company policies and relationship with colleagues. The absences of these were seen as dissatisfying aspects of a job which can affect the morale of workers. Herzberg stated that this is followed by several motivators, which include; responsibility, achievement, promotion and recognition. In relation to Tesco, subordinates of the managers such as shop floor employees, are unlikely to achieve the motivators stated by Herzberg, therefore are likely to be dissatisfied and de-motivated in their jobs. This can be very negative for a firm like Tesco as a de-motivated workforce is obviously more unproductive then a motivated workforce. Taking thi s into thought, it is vital for managers to tackle motivational issues of the workforce and see that the hygiene factors of employees are met, making it an effective approach to adopt. 7.0 Conclusion and Recommendations All in all, the evident success of Tesco shows that the management and leadership styles they are using are immensely successful. Management styles used such as the Theory X approach and authoritarian management are undoubtedly operating well. However, a 2007 DataMonitor Company report based on Tesco states that Tesco are looking to diversify into foreign countries such as Japan and China, and as a result, they may well have to reconsider the management and leadership strategies which they have in place. The reason for this is that the world of work differs in Japan and China compared to that of the UK as they place a large amount of emphasis on Total Quality Management (TQM), also know as Kaizen. This is a well renowned strategy in these countries and has become some what of a norm for workers there. As a result, it maybe wise for Tesco to implement a similar strategy to adopt and emulate already successful strategies used in Japan and China. Total Quality Management ‘is an op erational philosophy that stresses commitment to customer satisfaction and continuous improvement, TQM is committed to quality and excellence and to being the best in all functions. Hunger Wheelen (2003) state that in order for TQM to succeed in a company, ‘the program usually involves a significant change in corporate culture, requiring strong leadership from top management, employee training, empowerment of lower level employees (giving people more control over their work), and teamwork. In order for Tesco to implement such a strategy, they may have to discard the autocratic management approach and may have adopt a more democratic style of management, in which the ‘wishes and suggestions of the members are incorporated into those of the leader, as stated by Huczynski and Buchanan (1991). Although it may be hard to change from a management style which has been ever so successful for the firm, it may be crucial to adopt a new strategy in order for Tesco to be successful in their foreign ventures. 8.0 References Academic Textbooks Boddy, D (2005). Management: An Introduction. 3rd Edition. Essex: FT Prentice Hall. House, R; Hanges, P; Javidan, M; Dorfman, P; Gupta, V. (2004) Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks Hannagan, T (1995). Management Concepts and Practices. 2nd Edition. London: Pitman Publishing. Hunger, J; Wheelen, T (2005). Essentials of Strategic Management. 3rd Edition. Essex: Pearson Education Inc. Huczynski, A; Buchanan, D (1991). Organizational Behaviour. 2nd Edition. Hertfordshire, Cambridge University Press. Fincham, R; Rhodes, P (2005). Principles of Organisational Behaviour. 4th Edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press Mintzberg, H. (1973) The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper and Row, New York Masterson, R; Pickton, D (2004) Principles of Marketing, Berkshire, McGraw Hill Lecture Notes Meyer, M: CORP 2463, Week 4 Lecture Notes: Leadership, Influence and Power (2007), De Montfort University

Performance Management in Human Resource Management

Performance Management in Human Resource Management The following essay critically evaluates the relative importance of Performance Management and the role it plays in effective Human Resource Management in organisations today, whilst referring to relevant HRM theories, models and tools. The importance of PM in relation to other HRM functions will also be discussed, including the need for integration across HRM practices and management of the organisation as a whole. People are undoubtedly the most important, valuable and costly resource for an organisation and how this resource is managed can have a direct impact on an individuals performance and the organisation as a whole. Many organisations have set up a Performance Management Process. In its simplest form, it is based on the concept of, in order to be the best; everyone needs to continually improve their performance. A PM process supports this and all people managers are responsible for ensuring that the process is effectively carried out. In their study, Armstrong and Baron (2009) define PM as a process which contributes to the effective management of individuals and teams in order to achieve high levels of organisational performance. As such, it establishes shared understanding about what is to be achieved and an approach to leading and developing people which will ensure that it is achieved. They stress that PM is a strategy which relates to every activity of the organisation set in the c ontext of its human resource policies, culture, style and communications systems. The nature of the strategy depends on the organisational context and can vary from organisation to organisation. Michael Armstrong states that Performance Management is a process which is designed to improve organisational, team and individual performance and which is owned and driven by line managers. In order to drive effective PM, line managers are required to set clear objectives for performance and communicate these to individuals in their team. They are required to provide timely and appropriate feedback on performance levels, including regular one to one discussions and to develop each individuals ability to perform at their best. In their article, Sally Selden and Jessica E. Sowa (2011), state that in exploring PM, one must start with an explanation of the process of managing individual employee performance. Typically, the process starts at the top of the organization with management developing a performance management policy. Managers generally control performance by influencing inputs and by feedback provided by outputs. They state that the ultimate objective of a PM process is to align individual performance with organisational performance. An organisations PM process, however, is subject to interpretation by individual employees who may not necessarily react to signals in the same way. David Guest (1997) in particular suggests that the impact of HRM practices, such as PM depends upon the employees perception and evaluation, prompting the need for scholars studying PM to recognise the crucial role of employee perceptions and to incorporate them into the analysis and construction of PM in organisations. An analysis of a typical Performance planning in organisations today would involve the creating of a Performance Development Plan (PDP) for an individual. A PDP may consist of the following sections: 1. what am I going to achieve? (My objectives) linked to the organisations strategy and possibly mission statement 2. How am I doing? used to track progress against objectives 3. How I will achieve my objectives? (my competencies) and 4. My PDP, which would include areas for the individuals development, actions to take, support needed and from whom and how the individual will know they have been successful Most organisations today use SMART objective setting (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound). The PDP would also record a review of discussions and include career aspirations and time frames. Santander (2012) state that the PDP is a living document; it should be amended as and when required. It is recommended that monthly reviews are held to make sure any issues or changes to the PDP can be discussed. In addition, they state that Formal Reviews of an individual take place twice a year mid year and end of year. During these informal and formal review meetings, the following elements should be considered : assessing performance against agreed targets and objectives, providing feedback, positive reinforcement ( emphasising what has been done well and making only constructive criticism about what might be improved ), two-way conversation an open exchange of views about what has happened and agreement jointly coming to an understanding about what needs to be done to improve performance generally and overcome any issues raised in the course of the discussion. Managing staff performance should be managing for the individual to succeed not fail. The centrepiece of a PM system is typically the performance appraisal. A Performance Appraisal (Review) is an opportunity for individual employees and line managers to engage in a dialogue about the individuals performance and development, as well as support required from the manager (CIPD, 2011). A performance appraisal has many purposes such as clarifying expectations, reviewing past performance, motivating employees and assessing potential/promotability. There are many benefits of appraisal but equally there are potential problems such as the over reliance on outcomes rather than performance and the interviews themselves can cause anxiety. So, does a performance appraisal constitute a PM? While performance appraisal is an important part of PM, in itself it is not PM, rather it is one of the range of tools that can be used to manage performance. The performance appraisal is often the central pillar of PM. Our 2009 PM survey found that a large majority of organisations use individual appraisals as part of PM programmes. However, it is a common mistake to assume that if organisations implement performance appraisals, they have PM. This is not the case. PM is a holistic process bringing together many activities that collectively contribute to the effective management of individuals and teams in order to achieve high levels of organisational performance. The process is strategic, in that it is about broader issues and long-term goals, and integrated in that it links various aspects of the business, people management, individuals and teams. Performance appraisal on the other hand is operational, short-to-medium-term and conc erned only with individual employees and their performance and development. While it is one of the tools of PM, and the data produced can feed into other elements of PM, appraisal by itself does not constitute PM. Bratton and Gold (2012) state that ideally an organisation should have a variety of techniques to encourage appraisal and PM culture including downward appraisal immediate manager, self appraisal, peer/team appraisal, upward appraisal, multisource and 360 degree appraisal. The latter is where feedback is gathered from a wide range of commentators typically including the individuals direct reports, customers and colleagues, as well as the line manager. Its supporters claim that this gives managers and individuals better information about skills and performance, as well as working relationships, compared with more traditional appraisal arrangements based on line managers assessments. With 360 degree feedback, typically eight to ten people complete questionnaires describing the individuals performance (including themselves). The questionnaire usually consists of a number of statements rated on a scale. The ensuing report should summarise the answers given. It often shows the actual ra tings given for each question, as well as averages for each question and for each competency, and any written comments. Ideally the feedback from the whole process should be made anonymous and presented to the recipient by a skilled coach. Like other forms of appraisals, the 360 degree feedback should not bring any great surprises to individuals. Its focus, rather, should be on helping them to understand how their behaviour is perceived by others and confirming the behaviour that is most likely to get results. If implemented correctly, those supporting 360 feedback feel it can achieve certain key objectives 1) identifying differences between the way individuals see themselves and how they are perceived by others, 2) establishing differences between the perceptions of different groups of respondents and 3) in doing so, helping to make PM a more objective and fair process. Numerous studies of PM have been conducted over the years, one of which is the Fine Intentions article by Duncan Brown and Wendy Hirsh (2011). Their article questions whether PM is a worthy successor to appraisals, PM systems are seen by HR as a route to fulfilling many complex requirements beyond simply linking people to organisational success but is that too tall an order, they question? There are many studies showing powerful links between people management practices and organisational performance, and appraisal usually comes out as a key practice in this regard. The key conclusion, they state, to be drawn from their work is that PM is indeed a vitally important process for employers. But it is also extremely difficult to implement effectively. They lost count of the number of times that the process was described to them in their studies as a turgid exercise in box ticking or form filling something you do to keep HR quiet. In their article, they site two case studies to illustr ate the current trends and improvements that can be made to PM processes 1. BT Operate a sharp focus on getting personal objectives aligned throughout the organisation, clarity about performance standards, and a clear line of sight between individual, team and business performance. There has also been significant support and training for people managers to enable them to deliver great performance practice. 2. Oxfam GB presents both opportunities and challenges for PM. Staff here are highly motivated by the mission, but that can tempt them to set unrealistic work goals and to be reluctant to take time away from immediate tasks in order to focus on their own performance and development. Following the case studies, Brown Hirsh highlight the following 4 areas that HR could adopt to build more effective PM Get strategic (HR thinking less about PM as a process and more about how it can support all employees to achieve individual goals in support of organisations strategy); Keep it sim ple (simplify and clarify their processes); Focus on the feedback; and Equip the managers (training tailored to needs). Another study of PM and Appraisal in Human Organizations: Management and Staff Perspectives (Seldon Sowa, 2011) states that PM systems have been studied extensively in the public and for-profit sectors but not adequately explored in the non-profit sector. Their study addresses this gap and identifies gaps in the perception of management and staff concerning PM, and then identifying five different models of PM systems, concluding with lessons for practice. Organisations typically develop PM processes to motivate employees. The process can motivate employees by establishing expectations and providing feedback on achievement of those expectations. Ideally, the organisation can then target training to address the weaknesses identified or areas of potential growth. In addition, they can adopt compensation systems to reward the achievement of goals. Managing individual performance should result in higher employee satisfaction and morale and lower employee turnover, a process that has been demonstrated in research on public organisations. Their findings conclude that the non-profit organisations in their study do not rely on performance-based monetary rewards and incentives as critical components of their PM systems. Therefore, they state, it is important to focus on the possibility of other rewards tied to the PM system, such as job enrichment and job enlargement. They conclude that the preferable model of PM is the multi-feedback PM system for non-profit organisations and present three lessons to drive future research and practice: 1. Management to ensure that employees understand the PM system; 2. PM tools are underutilized in this sector; 3. PM is associated with positive employee outcomes, such as turnover, job satisfaction, enjoyment of job and commitment to the job. Many organisations today conduct regular employee opinion surveys to assess staff engagement. As Ben Willmott, senior policy adviser at the CIPD says: In the current environment, there is evidence that people are under increasing pressure in the workplace, that theres a growing trust deficit between people at the bottom and the top of organisations. Youve also got the squeeze on incomes, with people either having their pay frozen or receiving pay rises that are less than the rate of inflation. Against that backdrop, its difficult to build engagement. (Willmott, 2007). The Guest model of human resource management reflected the view that a core set of integrated HRM practices can achieve superior individual and organisational performance. According to Guest (1997), HRM differs from personnel management, and he attempts to identify the major assumptions or stereotypes underpinning each approach to employment management. He analyses HRM practices from selection, training, appraisal, rewards, job design, involvement and status and security. Most organisations today offer a comprehensive Rewards and Benefits package which can be used to both attract and retain employees. Reward Management, as part of HRM, incorporates rewarding people in relation to their value to the organisation as measured by their actual and potential contribution, and matching rewards and incentives to peoples needs and goals. In defining their Reward packages, organisations must consider external competitiveness and internal equity, aim to maintain or improve levels of employee performance and comply with employment legislation and regulations. Packages can include benefits such as (14) reduced rates on Apple products, all employee car scheme, partnership shares, retirement plan, childcare vouchers, performance related pay, incentive schemes linked to role and numerous others. Pay progression within companies usually depends on individual performance linked to PM, market rate and competency. According to CIPD (2012), 66% of organisations use a co mbination approach to pay progression e.g. individual performance and length of service. Employers need to align the rewards desired by employees with the needs of business. There are various elements to reward and it is important that they choose the appropriate mix of base to variable pay, fixed to flexible packages and pay to non-pay rewards. They should be aware of the various organizational risks that are involved when making decisions on how they reward and recognize individual and collective contribution. It is important that an appropriate communications strategy is adopted to explain to staff what behaviours, values and performances the organisation is rewarding, how and why (CIPD, 2012). Within HRM, organisations have a sickness absence policy which clearly sets out their policy statement and both employer and employee responsibilities. In the Annual Report 2011 CIPD (2012) assessed their conclusions on absence management and, giving line managers primary responsibility for managing absence remains one of the most commonly used approaches for managing absence. Serious commitment to flexible working practices within HRM may help reduce absence due to stress, home/family responsibilities and illegitimate reasons, all of which remain common causes of absence for a sizeable proportion of organizations. Their findings conclude that investment in promoting employee well-being and managing stress at work is worthwhile. A focus on these issues and employee engagement, they state, will promote attendance and organizational performance. To conclude, Performance Management is a crucial and fundamental function of human resource management. It focuses on setting a clear process for managers to follow in order to get the best from their people. The total rewards system and 360degree feedback performance analysiss seem very appropriate to be used by all organizations, to enhance employee performances and involvement. Writing this essay has taught me a great deal about the pressure involved in being a line manager and the standards required to do so effectively.

A History of Jazz and Classical Music :: Jazz Classical Music

Upon entering a modern record store, one is confronted with a wide variety of choices in recorded music. These choices not only include a multitude of artists, but also a wide diversity of music categories. These categories run the gamut from easy listening dance music to more complex art music. On the complex side of the scale are the categories known as Jazz and Classical music. Some of the most accomplished musicians of our time have devoted themselves to a lifelong study of Jazz or Classical music, and a few exceptional musicians have actually mastered both. A comparison of classical and Jazz music will yield some interesting results and could also lead to an appreciation of the abilities needed to perform or compose these kinds of music. Let's begin with a look at the histories of the two. The music called classical, found in stores and performed regularly by symphonies around the world, spans a length of time from 1600 up to the present. This time frame includes the Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic and Contemporary periods. The classical period of music actually spans a time from of 1750 to 1800; thus, the term Classical is a misnomer and could more correctly be changed to Western Art Music or European Art Music. European because most of the major composers up till the 20th century were European. Vivaldi was Italian, Bach was German, Mozart and Beethoven were Austrian; they are some of the more prominent composers. Not until the twentieth century with Gershwin and a few others do we find American composers writing this kind of art music. For the sake of convention, we can refer to Western Art Music as Classical music. Jazz is a distinctively American form of music, and it's history occupies a much smaller span of time. Its origins are found in the early 1900s as some dance band leaders in the southern U.S. began playing music that combined ragtime and blues. Early exponents of this dance music were Jelly Roll Martin (a blues player) and Scott Joplin (ragtime). The terms "Jazz" and "Jazz Band" first surfaced in the year 1900. Some say this occurred in New Orleans, although similar music was played at the same time in other places. The most prominent exponents of this early music, called Dixieland Jazz, included Louis Armstrong and Sidney Bechet. After World War I, Jazz music had evolved A History of Jazz and Classical Music :: Jazz Classical Music Upon entering a modern record store, one is confronted with a wide variety of choices in recorded music. These choices not only include a multitude of artists, but also a wide diversity of music categories. These categories run the gamut from easy listening dance music to more complex art music. On the complex side of the scale are the categories known as Jazz and Classical music. Some of the most accomplished musicians of our time have devoted themselves to a lifelong study of Jazz or Classical music, and a few exceptional musicians have actually mastered both. A comparison of classical and Jazz music will yield some interesting results and could also lead to an appreciation of the abilities needed to perform or compose these kinds of music. Let's begin with a look at the histories of the two. The music called classical, found in stores and performed regularly by symphonies around the world, spans a length of time from 1600 up to the present. This time frame includes the Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic and Contemporary periods. The classical period of music actually spans a time from of 1750 to 1800; thus, the term Classical is a misnomer and could more correctly be changed to Western Art Music or European Art Music. European because most of the major composers up till the 20th century were European. Vivaldi was Italian, Bach was German, Mozart and Beethoven were Austrian; they are some of the more prominent composers. Not until the twentieth century with Gershwin and a few others do we find American composers writing this kind of art music. For the sake of convention, we can refer to Western Art Music as Classical music. Jazz is a distinctively American form of music, and it's history occupies a much smaller span of time. Its origins are found in the early 1900s as some dance band leaders in the southern U.S. began playing music that combined ragtime and blues. Early exponents of this dance music were Jelly Roll Martin (a blues player) and Scott Joplin (ragtime). The terms "Jazz" and "Jazz Band" first surfaced in the year 1900. Some say this occurred in New Orleans, although similar music was played at the same time in other places. The most prominent exponents of this early music, called Dixieland Jazz, included Louis Armstrong and Sidney Bechet. After World War I, Jazz music had evolved